Research > Research Inventory > Bioenergetics: Energy System Responses
Climbing-Specific Exercise Tests: Energy System Contributions and Relationships With Sport Performance
Authors: Maciejczyk M., Michailov M.L., Wiecek M., Szymura J., Rokowski R., Szygula Z., Beneke R. | Year: 2022
Summary: This study examined how different finger-flexor tests—max strength, a 30-second all-out effort, and two endurance tasks—tap into aerobic and anaerobic energy systems to see which best reflects climbing ability. Max force, average force in the all-out test, and sustained force in the continuous test all showed strong links to real climbing performance, suggesting that both peak output and short-duration isometric endurance matter. Because only 13 male climbers were tested using lab tools rather than on-wall movement, these results mainly clarify which types of finger loading best mirror climbing demands.
Beta-Angel Note: An update on the original 2007 Bertuzzi gold mine. Fmax behaves like anaerobic power, the 30-s all-out average force and force-time at 60% reflect anaerobic capacity, and the intermittent 60% test mostly indexes local aerobic capacity / PCr recovery, though none of these predict grade in higher-level athletes. Bertuzzi showed that when elites climb well below their limit, they distinguish themselves mainly through movement economy, not superior bioenergetics—while Maciejczyk showed finger-force tests separate recreational from advanced but not advanced from elite. Put together, they imply a clean division of labor: use finger tests to profile developing climbers, but rely on other measurables (e.g. RFD, movement efficiency, pacing, decision quality) to understand performance differences near the elite level.
Reference: Front Physiol. 2022;12:787902. doi:10.3389/fphys.2021.787902
OPEN SOURCE: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8819085
Effects of Forearm Compression Sleeves on Muscle Hemodynamics and Muscular Strength and Endurance Parameters in Sports Climbing
Authors: Limmer M, de Marées M, Roth R. | Year: 2022
Summary: The study tested whether forearm compression sleeves immediately improve climbing-relevant strength, endurance, or lap-climbing output in recreational climbers. Sleeves changed oxygenation patterns during hand-grip testing but did not translate into better hang times, grip force, or climbing performance, suggesting the physiological effect was too small or too inconsistent to matter practically. These null results point toward two possibilities: compression may be more useful for recovery than for in-session performance, and future research should focus on climbing-specific tests and higher pressures rather than generalized grip tasks.
Beta-Angel note: Coaches should assume no meaningful in-session benefit; if anything, slight changes in oxygenation show that sleeves alter physiology without improving performance. Climbers vary widely in forearm hemodynamics—there may be non-responders and rare responders.
Reference: Front Physiol. 2022 Jun 3;13:888860. doi:10.3389/fphys.2022.888860
OPEN SOURCE: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9206081/
The Estimation of Critical Angle in Climbing as a Measure of Maximal Metabolic Steady State
Authors: Baláš, J., Gajdošík, J., Giles, D., & Fryer, S. | Year: 2022
Summary/Results: This study tested whether a “critical angle” (CA)—the steepest wall angle a climber can sustain without rapid fatigue—can be used as a climbing-specific version of “critical power” or “critical force” (see Giles et al from this year and 2018). It also evaluated the muscle oxygenation breakpoint (MOB), a local metabolic threshold identified using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) placed on the forearm flexors. CA was modeled from time-to-exhaustion at 3–5 different wall angles and showed excellent fit (R² = 0.99). Climbers sustained 20 minutes at 2° below CA (RPE 12.1), but failed in ~16 minutes at 2° above CA (RPE 16.4). MOB, identified as a change in muscle oxygenation slope, closely matched CA values (ICC = 0.80; SEM = 1.5°). The sample included 27 climbers (French grades 6a to 8b) who completed 5–7 lab sessions including CA estimation, MOB testing, and climbs just above and below CA.
Training Implications: CA offers a climbing-specific way to prescribe sustainable vs. unsustainable intensities on treadwalls using angle alone. MOB from a single NIRS test may be a practical alternative for estimating steady-state thresholds. Using fixed-angle routes with known CA allows coaches to target aerobic adaptations or fatigue tolerance more precisely. This suggests climbers should train slightly below and slightly above their estimated critical angle—using long continuous climbing just below it to build sustainable endurance, and short intervals just above it to improve tolerance to fatigue.
Reference: Baláš J, Gajdošík J, Giles D, Fryer S. The Estimation of Critical Angle in Climbing as a Measure of Maximal Metabolic Steady State. Front Physiol. 2022;12:792376. doi:10.3389/fphys.2021.792376
Open Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8766676/
Climbing-Specific Exercise Tests: Energy System Contributions and Relationships With Sport Performance
Authors: Maciejczyk M, Michailov ML, Wiecek M, Szymura J, Rokowski R, Szygula Z, Beneke R | Year: 2022
Summary/Results: This study analyzed energy system contributions across four climbing-specific tests on a 23 mm edge: max contraction, 30s all-out, continuous 60% hold, and intermittent 8s on / 2s off at 60%. The 30s test relied most on anaerobic alactic energy (62.4%), while the intermittent test showed the highest aerobic contribution (59.9%). Anaerobic glycolysis contributed the least (12–18%). Max grip force and all-out average force were most predictive of climbing performance.
Sample Size and Ability: 13 advanced to elite male climbers (French 7a–9a; IRCRA mean 23.7) with ~14.5 years experience.
Training Implications: Different protocols target different systems—max efforts for anaerobic power, continuous holds for anaerobic capacity, and intermittent work for aerobic recovery (phosphocreatine resynthesis between contractions). Intermittent protocols (e.g., 8s on / 2s off) may help train aerobic recovery.
Open Source: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8819085/
Reference: Maciejczyk M, Michailov ML, Wiecek M, Szymura J, Rokowski R, Szygula Z, Beneke R. Climbing-Specific Exercise Tests: Energy System Contributions and Relationships With Sport Performance. Front Physiol. 2022;13:817066. doi:10.3389/fphys.2022.817066
Beta Angel Note: The figures are great. They really show how different testing protocols isolate specific energy system contributions. Check them out!
Determinants of climbing energetic costs in humans
Authors: Elaine E. Kozma, Herman Pontzer | Year: 2021
Summary/Results: This study measured how climbing speed, route difficulty, and body proportions affect energy use during indoor climbing using respirometry. Faster climbing reduced cost of transport (energy per kg per meter) because postural costs mattered less at higher speeds. Total energy use ranged from ~6–13 J/kg/s, and efficiency ranged from 10–19%, both improving with speed. Arm length and body mass did not affect energy cost.
Sample Size and Ability: 12 experienced climbers (9 men, 3 women) climbing 5.6, 5.8, and 5.10 routes.
Training Implications: Moving more consistently and confidently may reduce unnecessary energy cost. Pacing drills that support faster but controlled climbing may improve efficiency. Anthropometrics may be less important for energy cost than often assumed.
Open Source: https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/224/13/jeb234567/270788/Determinants-of-climbing-energetic-costs-in-humans
Reference: Kozma EE, Pontzer H. Determinants of climbing energetic costs in humans. Journal of Experimental Biology. 2021;224(13).
Beta Angel Note: Introduces a velocity-based approach to measuring climbing energy cost, offering a different framework for understanding efficiency.
Isolated finger flexor vs. exhaustive whole-body climbing tests? How to assess endurance in sport climbers?
Authors: Baláš J, Gajdošík J, Giles D, Fryer S, Krupková D, Brtník M, Feldmann A | Year: 2021
Summary/Results: Finger flexor endurance (sustained and intermittent isometric contractions) and whole-body climbing endurance (motorized treadwall test) were both related to climbing performance, with R² values of 0.58–0.64. A muscle oxygenation breakpoint (sharp drop in local oxygen availability) occurred during incremental climbing at 82 ± 8% of peak oxygen uptake and 88 ± 8% of peak heart rate. Peak climbing angle, average oxygen uptake, and finger muscle oxygenation explained 83% of variance in self-reported climbing ability.
Training Implications: Combining fingerboard endurance tests with treadwall climbing may give a more complete endurance profile. Monitoring finger muscle oxygenation may provide useful feedback during testing and training progression.
Paywall: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00421-021-04595-7
Reference: Baláš J, Gajdošík J, Giles D, et al. (2021). Isolated finger flexor vs. exhaustive whole-body climbing tests? European Journal of Applied Physiology, 121, 1337–1348. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-021-04595-7
An All-Out Test to Determine Finger Flexor Critical Force in Rock Climbers
Authors: Giles, D., Hartley, C., Maslen, H., Hadley, J., Taylor, N., Torr, O., Chidley, J., Randall, T., & Fryer, S. | Year: 2020
Summary/Results: This study tested whether a single-session all-out intermittent hang test could estimate finger flexor critical force (ff-CF) and W′ in climbers. ff-CF represents the highest force that can be sustained without continual fatigue, while W′ reflects the finite capacity for work above that threshold. ff-CF (relative to body mass) explained 61% of sport climbing performance and 26% of bouldering performance, while W′ per kg explained 7% of sport and 34% of bouldering. A combined model explained 66% of sport and 44% of bouldering performance after adjusting for sex. Most climbers reached a force plateau in ~157 seconds using a 7:3 work-to-rest ratio, although some lower-level climbers (n = 8) did not reach a plateau and were excluded; time to plateau ranged from ~60 to 300 seconds. Participants self-reported grades from ~6a+ to 8c+ (sport) and V3 to V12 (bouldering).
Training Implications: The ff-CF test provides a practical way to estimate a climber’s sustainable force threshold and anaerobic capacity, which can help guide training intensity. It is likely most appropriate for climbers with experience in high-effort fingerboard training.
Reference: Giles, D., Hartley, C., Maslen, H., Hadley, J., Taylor, N., Torr, O., Chidley, J., Randall, T., & Fryer, S. (2020). An All-Out Test to Determine Finger Flexor Critical Force in Rock Climbers. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2020-0637
Open Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343601001_An_All-Out_Test_to_Determine_Finger_Flexor_Critical_Force_in_Rock_Climbers
Cardiorespiratory Demands of Competitive Rock Climbing
Authors: Nigel A. Callender, Tara N. Hayes, Nicholas B. Tiller | Year: 2020
Summary/Results: During simulated Olympic-format bouldering, athletes reached up to 88% of max heart rate and up to 75% of VO2max, with oxygen uptake ranging from 31.9–38.0 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹. Climbers spent 23% of time above gas exchange threshold (GET), indicating meaningful anaerobic contribution even in short efforts. While heart rate and oxygen use returned to baseline within 2–4 minutes, lactate and perceived exertion remained elevated, suggesting incomplete muscular recovery despite cardiorespiratory recovery.
Training Implications: Aerobic development may improve recovery between boulder attempts and across rounds. Breathing may be constrained during climbing due to trunk tension, suggesting potential value in mobility or breathing-focused strategies.
Sample Size and Ability: 11 elite boulderers (7 male, 4 female). Males IRCRA 28 (V13), females IRCRA 25 (V11). IRCRA Categories: Males HIGH-ELT (27–30), Females ELT (24–26).
Open Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343751690_Cardiorespiratory_demands_of_competitive_rock_climbing
Reference: Callender NA, Hayes TN, Tiller NB. Cardiorespiratory demands of competitive rock climbing. Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism. 2020.
The finger flexors occlusion threshold in sport-climbers: an exploratory study on its indirect approximation
Authors: Pedro Bergua Gómez, Jesús Montero-Marin, Alejandro Gomez-Bruton, & José A. Casajús | Year: 2020
Summary/Results:
This study tested 34 advanced and elite sport climbers using repeated two-hand finger hangs at six different loads (from 35% to 85% of max strength). The goal was to see if endurance time to exhaustion could indirectly estimate the occlusion threshold (OT)—the point at which muscle pressure cuts off blood flow in the finger flexors. Two ways of spotting this threshold were tried: (1) looking for when endurance results no longer followed a straight-line pattern, and (2) checking for sudden jumps in endurance between one test load and the next. Results showed that the estimated OT differed from one climber to another and was not tied to climbing grade or finger strength. However, more experienced climbers showed hints of vascular adaptation, meaning long-term practice might affect how blood flow supports endurance.
Beta Angel note: The idea of an “occlusion threshold” makes sense in theory, but the indirect ways of measuring it may not fully capture what’s happening. Coaches should treat OT as a useful concept to think about endurance, but be careful about relying on the numbers themselves without better tools.
Reference:
Bergua Gómez, P., Montero-Marin, J., Gomez-Bruton, A., & Casajús, J. A. (2020). The finger flexors occlusion threshold in sport-climbers: an exploratory study on its indirect approximation. European Journal of Sport Science. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2020.1827047
Full text: https://zaguan.unizar.es/record/112419/files/texto_completo.pdf
Muscle oxygen dynamics in elite climbers during finger-hang tests at varying intensities
Authors: Feldmann AM, Erlacher D, Pfister S, Lehmann R. | Year: 2020
Summary/Results:
This study examined whether muscle oxygen saturation (SmO₂, measured with near-infrared spectroscopy) can predict failure during climbing-specific hangs. Eleven elite male climbers performed half-crimp hangs on a 23 mm rung under four load conditions: bodyweight, bodyweight +20%, bodyweight −20%, and bodyweight −40%. Across the higher-intensity conditions (bodyweight, +20%, −20%), climbers consistently dropped to a minimal SmO₂ of about 22–24% (individual lows ranged from ~15% to ~30%), and time-to-failure strongly matched the time it took to reach this point. At the lowest intensity (−40% bodyweight), SmO₂ stayed higher (about 32%, range wider) and the relationship broke down, likely due to shifts in grip force and partial blood flow recovery. These findings indicate that climbers tend to fail once they reach their personal oxygen “floor,” and the key adaptation may lie not in lowering that floor, but in extending how long it takes to reach it.
Beta Angel Note: For coaches, this suggests that time-to-desaturation could serve as a measurable marker of endurance capacity. Instead of just seeing how long someone hangs until failure, you could measure how fast their muscle oxygen levels drop and use that as a training or monitoring tool.
Reference:
Feldmann, A. M., Erlacher, D., Pfister, S., & Lehmann, R. (2020). Muscle oxygen dynamics in elite climbers during finger-hang tests at varying intensities. Scientific Reports, 10, 3040. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-60029-y
Cardiorespiratory demands of competitive rock climbing
Authors: Callender NA, Hayes TN, Tiller NB | Year: 2020
Summary/Results:
This study measured how hard the heart and lungs work during simulated elite bouldering competition in 11 climbers (7 male IRCRA 28, 4 female IRCRA 25). Climbers completed five boulders over 45 minutes, averaging 21 total attempts. During climbing, oxygen use hit 75% of max and heart rate reached 88% of max, with 23% of climbing time above the gas exchange threshold (the shift to anaerobic effort). Breathing was fast but shallow due to chest compression during climbing; once climbing stopped, breath depth increased while breathing rate slowed. Cardiorespiratory markers like oxygen use, ventilation, and heart rate returned to baseline within 2–4 minutes, but arm and body fatigue remained high and blood lactate stayed elevated. Despite doing little aerobic training, climbers had high aerobic capacity, suggesting climbing itself trains the heart and lungs. The findings suggest that elite bouldering is not purely strength-based—repeated short bursts create significant aerobic demand, and postural demands may limit normal breathing patterns.
Reference: Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020 Jan 28;17(3):812. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17030812.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343751690_Cardiorespiratory_demands_of_competitive_rock_climbing
Changes in blood lactate and muscle activation in elite rock climbers during a 15-m speed climb.
Authors: Guo F, Wang Q, Liu Y, Hanson NJ. | Year: 2019
Summary/Results: Surface electromyography (sEMG – measuring electrical activity in the muscle through the surface of the skin) and video signals were used to record 12 elite climbers on a 15-m speed climbing wall (avg = 8.1 ± 2.1 sec). Blood lactate was measured before and after the climb. The study suggests that there was more fatigue in the upper limbs, specifically biceps brachii and flexor digitorum superficialis, over the course of the climb. Also, slower climbers had a greater rise in blood lactate concentration.
Reference: Eur J Appl Physiol. 2019 Mar;119(3):791-800. doi: 10.1007/s00421-018-04070-w. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/30689100
The determination of finger flexor critical force in rock climbers
Author: D. Giles, JB Chidley, N. Taylor, O. Torr, J. Hadley, T. Randall, S. Fryer | Year: 2018
Summary/Results: The authors studied the applicability of a new measurement tool called “critical force” in 11 climbers who climb roughly 7b – 8b+ (5.12b – 5.14a). The authors used a series of three measurements taken at 80%, 60%, and 45% of each climber’s maximum force (MVC calculated on a 20mm edge for 7 seconds) using a 7 second on, 3 second rest protocol until failure. These three measurements allowed the researchers to calculate “critical force” (the threshold for being able to sustain work at “a certain intensity” – see note) and W’ (the duration of sustainable work above the threshold). Beta-Angel note: The excellence of the “critical force” concept needs some explanation. It is best described in an article by Poole et al. (2016): it basically serves as an indicator of systemic fatigue during high-intensity exercise. The two concepts (CF and W’) show how long “severe” high-intensity exercise can be sustained. “Severe” intensity exercise is defined as a second threshold separating “heavy” and “severe” intensities and sits above the typical “lactate” threshold which separates “moderate” from “heavy” intensities. During severe intensity, oxygen consumption rises continuously to its maximum level, oxygen delivery limits the ability of cells to convert energy from nutrients, energy reserves near depletion, blood lactate increases to exhaustion, as well as other indicators of fatigue.
Reference: International Journal of Sports Phsyiology and Performance, December 2018
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329814457_The_determination_of_finger_flexor_critical_force_in_rock_climbers
The effects of 8 weeks of two different training methods on on-sight lead climbing performance
Author: M. Philippe, I. Filzwieser, V. Leichtfried, C. Blank, S. Haslinger, J. Fleckenstein, W. Schobersberger | Year: 2018
Summary/Results: Researchers studied the effect of two different 8-week training programs on a simulated world cup onsight format test in 23 athletes (12b-13b) and tested them on a 13b onsight route prior to the training, after the training, and 2 weeks after training ended. The two training protocols roughly followed (1) bouldering and power-based workouts with limited endurance climbing, and (2) different difficulties and volume of lead climbing. Neither group was superior to one another, but both groups showed significant improvements after training ended.
Beta-Angel note: this is an enjoyable synthesis of information regarding a more bouldering-based protocol and a more endurance-based protocol for lead climbing training. The second onsight test was mirrored from the first (and 8 weeks later), and the third was the exact same as the first but 10 weeks later. The authors appear to have chosen this format of tests to provide the same level of difficulty while attempting to maintain the spirit of the onsight format.
Reference: J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 2018 May 2.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29722250
Bioenergetics > Energy System Responses
Cardiovascular and metabolic responses during indoor climbing and laboratory cycling exercise in advanced and élite climbers
Author: E. Limonta, A. Brighenti, S. Rampichini, E. Cè, F. Schena, F. Esposito | Year: 2018
Summary/Results: Researchers tested advanced (7a+-7c) and elite (8a-8b+) climbers on two different exercises: a climbing treadwall test and a cycling test, both with step-wise speed increases and rests between steps, in order to determine distinctions between heart rate and oxygen consumption. The authors ultimately recommend that heart rate should not be used as a good climbing intensity indicator, and that peak ability to consume oxygen, and thus maximum aerobic fitness, should be reconsidered as an important indicator of climbing. Additionally, the elite climbers had greater climbing economy during comparisons at the same velocity, but the authors are unclear whether this is due to “postural control and technical optimization” or physiological adaptations. Beta-Angel note: The authors were interested in the changes in heart rate and oxygen consumption with different velocities of climbing. For low and medium velocities, the heart rate is disproportionately higher compared to oxygen consumption. The authors suggest that longer time spent in an upper-body isometric contraction has the potential to lead to a “disproportionate rise in blood pressure, cardiac output, and [heart rate].” But for faster velocities, the two measurements rise in a more equal manner and mechanical work may be higher.
Reference: Eur J Appl Physiol. 2018 Feb;118(2):371-379.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29234917
Bioenergetics > Energy System Responses
Reliability of Near-Infrared Spectroscopy for Measuring Intermittent Handgrip Contractions in Sport Climbers
Author: J. Baláš, J. Kodejška, D. Krupková, J. Hannsmann, S. Fryer | Year: 2018
Summary/Results: The researchers studied the effectiveness of using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) in order to measure forearm muscle oxygenation in 15 males and 17 females. The study used an 8-second work / 2-second rest repeater protocol (60% of max finger force) to failure over 3 sessions. The study’s authors concluded that NIRS reliably measured muscle oxygenation by using the mean “tissue saturation index” which is derived from measuring oxygenated and non-oxygenated blood around the tendons used to flex the fingers.
Reference: J Strength Cond Res. 2018 Feb;32(2):494-501.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29369955
Bioenergetics > Energy System Responses
Acute Responses to Forearm Compression of Blood Lactate Accumulation, Heart Rate, Perceived Exertion, and Muscle Pain in Elite Climbers
Author: FA Engel, B. Sperlich, U. Stöcker, P. Wolf, V. Schöffl, L. Donath | Year: 2018
Summary/Results: The authors tested the effect of VERTICS compression sleeves and placebo compression sleeves on blood lactate concentration, heart rate, perceived exertion, and perceived pain in 7 elite (5 female, 2 male) members of the Swedish National Team. Researchers detected a very small but non-significant effect of the forearm compression sleeves on blood lactate accumulation and perceived exertion, and feel that the reduction in blood lactate levels and perceived exertion was so low as to make it non-practical for climbers. Beta-Angel note: Just a quick comment on a caveat – one hypothesis in the paper from a review of a study on clothing “feel” caused the authors to write: “both elevated skin temperature and proprioception could in fact improve climbing, especially in a cold environment or on a cold surface.”
Reference: Front Physiol. 2018 May 23;9:605.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5974167/
Bioenergetics > Energy System Responses
Differences in Oxygenation Kinetics between the Dominant and Nondominant Flexor Digitorum Profundus in Rock climbers
Author: D. Giles, VE Romero, I. Garrido, A. de la O Puerta, K. Stone, S. Fryer | Year: 2017
Summary/Results: Researchers built on past work in Germany (Donath et al. 2013 – climbers use dominant hand longer and allow it to recover less than non-dominant hand) to assess whether oxygen recovery in the long flexor tendon (which allows us to flex our fingers) was different between the two hands. The researchers found that the dominant hand recovers 13.6% faster, and was consistent across both gender and on-sight ability (510c to 5.13b). The researchers offer practical advice to coaches: consider incorporating some individual forearm training to ensure the same amount of time and effort is given to both hands. Beta-Angel note: it will be interesting to see what protocols (hangboard; timing your engage hand, etc.) are built from this finding. Beta-Angel note2: the authors also suggest that better oxygenation in climbers is a function of adaptations in the capillaries (thin, branching blood vessels that convey oxygen, nutrients and wastes to and from tissues), such as increased density and waste-filtering, rather than the larger arteries or blood speed. This may inflame the war between proponents of ARCing and the ARC-nots.
Reference: Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2017 Jan;12(1):137-139.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27145534
Hemodynamic and cardiorespiratory predictors of sport rock climbing performance
Author: S. Fryer, D. Giles, IG Palomino, A. de la O Puerta, VE Romero | Year: 2017
Summary/Results: The authors of this paper sought to learn how much of sport climbing performance can be explained by: (1) two predictors of forearm aerobic capacity: local (forearm specific) aerobic ability and forearm recovery, and (2) one general aerobic capacity indicator of the whole body on a treadwall. The authors found that both forearm aerobic capacity and general aerobic ability on a treadwall were associated with greater red-point performance, and collectively explained 67.1% of the variance in red-point ability. Beta-Angel note: the authors note an interest in determining whether these findings are (1) adaptations caused by climbing or are (2) prerequisites to climbing, and we appreciate that the authors don’t automatically assume an answer.
Reference: J Strength Cond Res. 2017 Mar 13
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28301444
Analysis of Contemporary Anaerobic Sport Specific Training Techniques for Rock Climbing
Authors: Justin Mabe and Stephen L. Butler, Ed.D.
Summary/Results: The authors prepare a review of climbing-specific training tools specific to the anaerobic energy system with research literature and cross-compare them to climbing movement phases, which include stabilization, preparation, and displacement. The authors suggest that between hangboarding, campus boarding, system training and hyper-gravity training, system training may be the most sport-specific and it along with hyper-gravity training affect all three phases – ultimately leading to a recommendation for system board training with added weight.
Reference: The Sport Journal, June 24th, 2016, Vol 20
http://thesportjournal.org/article/analysis-of-contemporary-anaerobic-sport-specific-training-techniques-for-rock-climbing/
The effects of long term sport rock climbing training on heart rate variability in sedentary adults
AUTHORS: D. Aras, A. Bingol, B. C. Yasli | Year: 2016
SUMMARY/RESULTS: Researchers used heart rate variability (magnitude and time between consecutive heart beats) to look at the effect of an eight week sport climbing program on the heart. While no significant differences were found in the tests after the eight week program, some improvement was seen in the ability to conserve energy.
REFERENCE: 3rd Rock Climbing Research Congress. Proceedings 2016, Telluride, CO
https://docs.wixstatic.com/ugd/441095_76117ef587b34539bc29d428a39b366b.pdf
A sport-specific upper-body ergometer test for evaluating submaximal and maximal parameters in elite rock climbers
AUTHORS: ML Michailov, A. Morrison, MM Ketenliev, BP Pentcheva | Year: 2015
SUMMARY/RESULTS: Researchers compared 11 elite sport climbers on a treadmill (a non-climbing specific energy measurement test) and an upper-body (more climbing specific) energy measurement test using a vertically-mounted rower to assess aerobic fitness. The researchers compared several measures, including oxygen consumption, heart rate, blood lactate (a byproduct of the body’s use of simple sugars formed in association with muscular fatigue, often associated with being “pumped”), and climbing grade ability. The climbing specific measurement test (ergometer) was strongly correlated to climbing-performance and the traditional treadmill was not.
REFERENCE: Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2015 Apr;10(3):374-80.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25230001
The Relationship between Climbing Ability and Physiological Responses to Rock Climbing
AUTHORS: Jiří Baláš,1 Michaela Panáčková,1 Barbora Strejcová,1 Andrew J. Martin,2 Darryl J. Cochrane,2 Miloš Kaláb,1 Jan Kodejška,1 and Nick Draper3 | Year: 2014
SUMMARY/RESULTS: Researchers looked at how the body was affected by changing wall angles and different route difficulties on climbers of all abilities. Their findings suggest that focusing on the relationship of respiration and movement could help improve athletic performance, and that oxygen consumption during submaximal climbing provides a useful test with which to estimate climbing ‘economy’ or efficiency. Beta-Angel note: No, we don’t need our inhaler. We’re hyperventilating intentionally!
REFERENCE: The Scientific World Journal,Volume 2014 (2014), Article ID 678387, 6 pageshttps://www.hindawi.com/journals/tswj/2014/678387/
Fit-climbing test: a field test for indoor rock climbing
AUTHORS: R. Bertuzzi, E. Franchini, V. Tricoli, AE Lima-Silva, FO Pires, NM Okuno, MA Kiss | Year: 2012
SUMMARY/RESULTS: Researchers measured exhaled air, blood lactate (a byproduct of the body’s use of simple sugars formed in association with muscular fatigue, often associated with being “pumped”) concentration, handgrip strength, and heart rate in 13 climbers divided into two ability-based groups tested on a novel tool called the “fit-climbing test.” Bertuzzi et al. believe the test can be used to evaluate rock climbers because of its specificity and relation to oxygen use during movement in climbing.
REFERENCE: J Strength Cond Res. 2012 Jun;26(6):1558-63.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21904243
Influence of ascent speed on rock climbing economy
AUTHORS: A. Responi, F. Schena, A. Leonardi, P. Tosi | Year: 2012
SUMMARY/RESULTS: Authors of the study measured the energy cost of changes in the speed of an ascent by comparing the climber’s preferred speed with an increase and decrease to that preferred speed. The authors found that climbers at the same level preferred a similar speed and that climbing energy management became better as speed increased from the lowest speed to the highest speed, suggesting that the preferred speed is not necessarily the most economical – rather it may be a compromise between speeding up to avoid spending time in difficult positions and slowing down to avoid the speed and frequency of muscle contraction.
REFERENCE: Sport Sciences for Health, May 2012, Volume 7, Issue 2-3, pp 71-80
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11332-012-0115-8
Performance determining factors in indoor climbing: one of the contributions of Professor Maria Augusta Kiss to the development of sports sciences in Brazil (Lit Review)
AUTHORS: R. Bertuzzi, FO Pires, AE Lima-Silva, JFL Gagliardi, FR De-Oliveira | Year: 2011
SUMMARY/RESULTS: Authors reviewed the existing literature on handgrip strength and other physiological variables in rock climbing. The authors suggest that body mass, body fat percentage, handgrip strength, aerobic (oxygen) metabolism, and alactic (or cell-based muscular fuel system, vs. lactic, a system which uses glucose as a fuel) anaerobic (non-oxygen) metabolism, as well as economy of movement, are crucial to success in sport climbing.
REFERENCE: Rev Bras Med Esporte vol.17 no.2 São Paulo Mar./Apr. 2011
http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S1517-86922011000200002&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en
Climbing time to exhaustion is a determinant of climbing performance in high-level sport climbers
AUTHORS: V. Espana-Romero, FB. Ortega Porcel, EG Artero, D Jimenez-Pavon, A. Gutierrez-Sainz, MJ Castillo Garzon, JR Ruiz. | Year: 2009
SUMMARY/RESULTS: Researchers broke up two groups into expert and elite climbers and measured body composition as well as physical fitness and other factors associated with body size and function. Researchers suggest that climbing time to exhaustion is a major determinant of climbing performance.
REFERENCE: Eur J Appl Physiol. 2009 Nov;107(5):517-25
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19680679
Physiological adaptation in noncompetitive rock climbers: good for aerobic fitness?
AUTHORS: A Rodio, L Fattorini, A Rosponi, FM Quattrini, M Marchetti | Year: 2008
SUMMARY/RESULTS: Researchers assessed cardiorespiratory fitness of 13 rock climbers including measures such as heart rate, maximal and steady-state aerobic power, blood lactate (a byproduct of the body’s use of simple sugars formed in association with muscular fatigue, often associated with being “pumped”) and “exercise intensity” (Vo2 steady-state as percentage of peak oxygen consumption) which was 70% in men and 72% in women. Noncompetitive rock climbing was assessed as having an excellent – superior aerobic profile based on standards set by the American College of Sports Medicine.
REFERENCE: J Strength Cond Res. 2008 Mar;22(2):359-64
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18550948
Physiological and Metabolic Responses in Novice and Recreational Rock Climbers
AUTHORS: Doran, Grace | Year: 2007
SUMMARY/RESULTS: Researchers measured ten male rock climbers on three randomly assigned climbing tasks, used an arm-cycling ergometer to measure peak oxygen uptake, take heart rate and blood lactate (a byproduct of the body’s use of simple sugars formed in association with muscular fatigue, often associated with being “pumped”) samples, collect expired gas (e.g. from breathing) samples, and collect anthropometry data (age, height, and weight) and self-report climbing history (ability, experience, sessions, duration). Differences between novice and experienced climbers suggest specific metabolic adaptations which allow experienced climbers to climb further, faster, and with lower energy expenditure than novice climbers. While authors agree that climbing meets accepted standards by American College of Sports Medicine, they believe that work: rest ratios must be modified to decrease blood lactate accumulation and allow maintenance for duration of exercise.
REFERENCE: Research Institute for Sports and Exercise Science, School of Human Sciences, Henry Cotton Campus, Liverpool John Mooes University, Liverpool.
http://dk.mors.si/Dokument.php?id=27&lang=slv
Energy system contributions in indoor rock climbing
AUTHORS: RC Bertuzzi, E Franchini, E Kokubun, MA Kiss | Year: 2007
SUMMARY/RESULTS: Researchers studied six elite climbers and seven recreational climbers across easy, moderate and difficult climbs to compare the use of three different energy systems. The system used for power production (anaerobic alactic, or phosphagen system) and the energy system used for endurance (aerobic or oxydative systems) training were found to be utilized at a higher frequency than did the lactic energy system. We care about this because we often climb until we are pumped as a means to train the anaerobic lactic system to improve climbing performance on routes. This is challenged by the paper which gives the notion that maybe using long duration, lower intensity climbing, and also training power output simultaneously could be more useful. Summary courtesy of Tyler Nelson.
Beta-Angel note: Particularly interesting quote: “Thus, climbing economy seems to be more important for the performance of these athletes than improved energy metabolism.” Additionally, there are some interesting notes in this study about the connection of climbing economy and upper body posture control.
REFERENCE: Eur J Appl Physiol. 2007 Oct;101(3):293-300
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17602238
Physiological responses to indoor rock-climbing and their relationship to maximal cycle ergometry
AUTHORS: Sheel AW1, Seddon N, Knight A, McKenzie DC, R Warburton DE. | Year: 2003
SUMMARY/RESULTS: 6 male and 3 female elite sport climbers participated in two data collection exercises: (1) an easy and a hard indoor climb, and (2) a cycle test to exhaustion. Researchers monitored oxygen consumption, gas inhalation/exhalation from the lungs, comparison of carbon dioxide produced by the body to oxygen, and heart rate. Increasing levels of climbing difficulty give rise to both heart rate and oxygen consumption. However, heart rate rises disproportionately compared to oxygen consumption which is attributed to intermittent muscle contractions and reliance on both aerobic (oxygen system) and anaerobic (non-oxygen system) metabolism.
REFERENCE: Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003 Jul;35(7):1225-31.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12840646
Energy cost of sport rock climbing in elite performers
AUTHORS: J. Booth, F. Marino, C. Hill, and T. Gwinn | Year: 1999
SUMMARY/RESULTS: Researchers assessed 7 climbers’ oxygen uptake, blood lactate (a byproduct of the body’s use of simple sugars formed in association with muscular fatigue, often associated with being “pumped”) concentration, and heart rate using an indoor vertical treadwall and a route climb graded 5c. Results between indoor and outdoor were compared. Researchers suggest outdoor climbs of five to ten minutes duration and moderate difficulty require a significant portion of maximum oxygen consumption compared to indoor treadwall.
REFERENCE: Br J Sports Med. 1999 Feb; 33(1): 14–18.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1756138/
Energy expenditure and physiological responses during indoor rock climbing
AUTHORS: Mermier CM1, Robergs RA, McMinn SM, Heyward VH. | Year: 1997
SUMMARY/RESULTS: Researchers tested 14 experienced climbers (9 male, 5 female) using three separate trials: a 90 degree vertical wall, a 106 degree moderately difficult wall, and a 151 degree overhang wall, with 15 minutes of rest in between each trial. Researchers found significant differences between trials for heart rate, blood lactate (a byproduct of the body’s use of simple sugars formed in association with muscular fatigue, often associated with being “pumped”), oxygen consumption (VO2) and energy expenditure, but not for ratio of carbon dioxide produced by the body to oxygen used. Rock climbing does not elicit the traditional relationship whereby oxygen and heart rate increase in tandem characteristic of treadmill and cycling. Heart rate hit 74-85% of predicted maximal values and energy expenditure was similar for a moderate running pace. Authors conclude that indoor rock climbing is a good activity to increase cardiorespiratory fitness and muscular endurance.
REFERENCE: Br J Sports Med. 1997 Sep;31(3):224-8.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9298558 or PDF at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1332525/pdf/brjsmed00003-0060.pdf
Metabolic Responses during rock climbing in expert sport rock climbers
AUTHORS: BW Wilkins, PB Watts, A Wilcox | Year: 1996
SUMMARY/RESULTS: Description of the metabolic and physiological responses to rock climbing. Researchers used age, experience, maximum oxygen consumption (VO2 Max), and % fat, and collected expired air and blood from participants before and after two situations (long boulder problem, and 10 minutes of bouldering). Average and peak oxygen consumption represented 33-38% and 43-50% respectively. Additionally, blood lactate (a byproduct of the body’s use of simple sugars formed in association with muscular fatigue, often associated with being “pumped”) production was assessed as significant.
REFERENCE: Medicine & Sciencei n Sports & Exercise, Volume 28(5) Supplement, May 1996, P 159
Referenced at: https://www.nmu.edu/hhp/sites/DrupalHHP/files/UserFiles/PWVITA-2016.pdf
VersaClimbing elicits higher VO2max than does treadmill running or rowing ergometry
AUTHORS: CJ Brahler, SE Blank | Year: 1995
SUMMARY/RESULTS: Researchers tested maximum rate of oxygen consumption in collegiate oarswomen and coxswain on a treadmill, rowing machine, and a simulated climbing machine. Researchers suggest that whole-body climbing exercise elicits more inhaled/exhaled gas and a greater maximum rate of oxygen consumption for oarswomen and coxswain than simulated running or rowing.
REFERENCE: Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1995 Feb;27(2):249-54.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7723649 or https://versaclimber.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/176/2016/12/Brahler-study.pdf
Energy costs of rock climbing at different paces
AUTHORS: PB Watts, CA Clure, MR Hill, SE Humphreys, AK Lish | Year: 1995
SUMMARY/RESULTS: This study used a rock climbing treadmill (Treadwall) to enable evaluation of physiological responses (Heart Rate, maximum oxygen volume) and energy expenditures (measured by expired air), during climbing at slow, moderate, and fast paces. Potential conclusions include: rock climbing requires moderate to high max oxygen volume and Energy expenditure, climbing pace influences energy expenditure in a positive linear manner, and absolute energy expenditure is a function of the climber’s body mass and total distance climbed.
REFERENCE: Official Journal of the American College of Sports Medicine, Vol 27, No 5 Supplement, May 1995
https://insights.ovid.com/medicine-science-sports-exercise/mespex/1995/05/001/energy-costs-rock-climbing-different-paces/100/00005768
Energy specificity of rock climbing and aerobic capacity in competitive sport rock climbers
AUTHORS: Veronique Billat, Pierre Palleja, Therry Charlaix, Pierre Rizzardo, Nicolas Janel | Year: 1995
SUMMARY/RESULTS: Researchers measured oxygen (VO2 Max) consumption and heart rate of climbers using a treadmill, a pulling exercise, and on two climbing routes (1st: more complex with small holds, and 2nd: steeper with bigger holds – similar difficulty). Researchers suggested that rock climbing does not require high oxygen consumption compared to heart rate elevation, and that the transformation of oxygen into energy is not as important. However, it may be more important during steeper sections of routes. Study used four elite level climbers. Study also identified that there was a higher proportion of “hip movement” time (vs. a stationary position) on the steeper route than on the less steep route.
REFERENCE: J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 1995 Mar;35(1):20-4.
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Veronique_Billat/publication/15724089_Energy_specificity_of_rock_climbing_and_aerobic_capacity_in_competitive_sport_rock_climbers/links/004635338be9cabeb3000000/Energy-specificity-of-rock-climbing-and-aerobic-capacity-in-competitive-sport-rock-climbers.pdf