Research > Research Inventory > Kinesiology: Anatomy
Genetic profile of sports climbing athletes from three different ethnicities
Authors: Saito, M., Ginszt, M., Semenova, E. A., Massidda, M., Huminska-Lisowska, K., Michałowska-Sawczyn, M., Homma, H., Cięszczyk, P., Okamoto, T., Larin, A. K., Generozov, E. V., Majcher, P., Nakazato, K., Ahmetov, I. I., & Kikuchi, N. | Year: 2021
Summary/Results: This study examined four gene polymorphisms (ACTN3 R577X, ACE I/D, CKM rs8111989, and TRHR rs7832552) in sport climbers from Japan, Poland, and Russia to identify possible genetic markers linked to climbing ability. Only the ACTN3 R577X variant showed a consistent association: climbers were more likely to carry the X allele (linked to reduced power and higher fatigue resistance) than non-climbers, but only when they looked across all three samples together. Genotypes were identified through saliva or blood DNA sampling, and meta-analysis revealed that the RX + XX genotypes of ACTN3 were significantly more common in climbers than in controls. The X allele is associated with fewer fast-twitch fibers and greater flexibility and endurance in other populations, which may support body control during long or awkward climbing positions. The sample included 258 climbers (mostly elite) and 1151 controls across three ethnicities; disciplines included bouldering, lead, and speed climbing.
Training Implications: The ACTN3 X allele is associated with traits like enhanced flexibility and better endurance under tension, which may support body control during extended or complex positions. Coaches might emphasize training that improves sustained muscle engagement in stretched positions—like isometric lock-offs at full reach, slow eccentric lowering through wide spans, or drills that challenge control at extreme joint angles. Future genotype-based research should separate athletes by discipline, since explosive traits may be more relevant for speed climbers than for lead or boulder specialists.
Reference: Saito M, Ginszt M, Semenova EA, Massidda M, Huminska-Lisowska K, Michałowska-Sawczyn M, et al. Genetic profile of sports climbing athletes from three different ethnicities. Biol Sport. 2021;39(4):913–919. https://doi.org/10.5114/biolsport.2022.109958
Open Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9536361/
Association between MCT1 T1470A polymorphism and climbing status in Polish and Japanese climbers
Authors: Saito, M., Ginszt, M., Massidda, M., Cięszczyk, P., Okamoto, T., Majcher, P., Nakazato, K., & Kikuchi, N. | Year: 2020
Summary/Results: This study examined the association between the MCT1 T1470A polymorphism and climbing status in 226 Polish and Japanese climbers compared to 1028 controls. Polish climbers showed a higher frequency of the T allele and TT genotype compared to controls, particularly in lead climbers, while no significant association was found in Japanese climbers, suggesting a population-specific effect.
Beta Angel note: This points toward a possible role of lactate transport characteristics in climbing performance, but the inconsistent findings across populations suggest the effect may be context-dependent and not a universal marker of climbing ability per se.
Reference:
Saito, M., Ginszt, M., Massidda, M., Cięszczyk, P., Okamoto, T., Majcher, P., Nakazato, K., & Kikuchi, N. (2020). Association between MCT1 T1470A polymorphism and climbing status in Polish and Japanese climbers. Biology of Sport, 38(2), 229–234. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8139354/
Assessment of myofascial stiffness of flexor digitorum superficialis muscles in rock climbers
Piotr Kocur, Iga Piwińska, Magdalena Goliwąs, Katarzyna Adamczewska (2021)Summary/Results:
- This study used a MyotonPro (a handheld device that taps a muscle and measures how much it resists movement) to compare the stiffness of the flexor digitorum superficialis (FDS) in climbers vs. non-climbers. Climbers showed 15–20% more stiffness in stretched positions (elbow extended) before training, and stiffness increased 25–41% after one climbing session.
- “”Resting stiffness”” refers to how tense a muscle is when it’s completely relaxed—not being used. Climbers had more resting tension in the FDS, especially when the muscle was lengthened, likely from long-term adaptation to climbing.
Training Implications:
- Higher passive tension might reflect adaptation to high loading, but too much may reduce flexibility, restrict blood flow, and raise overuse injury risk.
- Recovery strategies like stretching, soft tissue work, or compression may help manage forearm flexor stiffness and improve climbing effectiveness.
Reference Kocur P, Piwińska I, Goliwąs M, Adamczewska K. Assessment of myofascial stiffness of flexor digitorum superficialis muscles in rock climbers. Acta of Bioengineering and Biomechanics. 2021;23(2):21–32.
Effect of Climbing Speed on Pulmonary Oxygen Uptake and Muscle Oxygen Saturation Dynamics in the Finger Flexors
Jan Gajdošík, Jiří Baláš, Dominika Krupková, Lukáš Psohlavec, and Nick Draper (2021)Summary/Results:
- This study investigated how different climbing speeds affect oxygen use both in the whole body and in the forearm muscles during submaximal climbing.
- Ascent speed increases of 1 m/min led to a rise in systemic oxygen uptake (VO2) by 2.4 mL/kg/min and a drop in local muscle oxygen saturation (StO2) in the flexor digitorum profundus by 1.3%. However, the drop in StO2 only occurred in intermediate climbers, not advanced ones.
- To build overall aerobic fitness, climbers can increase the speed of continuous climbs.
- To train localized forearm endurance, it may be more effective to make climbing more intense by using smaller holds or steeper walls instead of increasing speed.
- Intermediate climbers may show greater sensitivity to local muscle fatigue during faster climbs, suggesting a need for careful load management.
Reference: Gajdošík J, Baláš J, Krupková D, Psohlavec L, Draper N. Effect of Climbing Speed on Pulmonary Oxygen Uptake and Muscle Oxygen Saturation Dynamics in the Finger Flexors. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2021;17(2):176–184.
Masticatory Muscles Activity in Sport Climbers
Authors: Ginszt, M., Zieliński, G., Byś, A., Gawda, P., & Majcher, P. | Year: 2020
Summary/Results:
The study compared jaw muscle activity in 22 experienced climbers and 22 non-athletes. Using electrical sensors on the skin, researchers measured muscles at rest and during teeth clenching. Climbers showed much stronger activation of the jaw’s masseter muscle when clenching, but no differences at rest or in the temple muscles. The authors suggest this may reflect an adaptation to frequent jaw clenching during climbing or a way of handling stress. However, they did not test whether stronger jaw activity actually improves climbing performance.
Beta Angel note: Interesting angle—jaw clenching has been linked in other studies to better grip force and body stability, so it’s tempting to think climbers might unconsciously use it as a performance aid. But this paper didn’t confirm that link.
Reference:
Ginszt, M., Zieliński, G., Byś, A., Gawda, P., & Majcher, P. (2020). Masticatory muscles activity in sport climbers. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(4), 1378. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041378
Importance and Diagnosis of Flexibility Preparation of Male Sport Climbers
Authors: Draga, P., Ozimek, M., Krawczyk, M., Rokowski, R., Nowakowska, M., Ochwat, P., Jurczak, A., & Stanula, A. | Year: 2020
Summary/Results:
This study examined 60 advanced to higher-elite male climbers (grades 7b–9a redpoint) to evaluate how well flexibility tests relate to climbing performance. Athletes performed both standard flexibility tests (stand-and-reach, straddle sit, straddle stand) and climbing-specific assessments. The Grant test measured how high a climber could lift and rotate a bent leg sideways while standing near a wall. The Draga-index test involved raising a bent leg while the trunk was stabilized against a board, with results adjusted for leg length. Findings showed that hip abduction tests, particularly the straddle stand, were significantly linked with climbing skill level, suggesting they can help diagnose useful flexibility in climbers. In contrast, sport-specific tests like the Grant and Draga-index showed no meaningful connection to performance.
Beta Angel note: It’s notable that the basic hip abduction tests provided clearer insights than the climbing-specific ones, which hints that simpler assessments may sometimes capture sport demands more effectively.
Reference:
Draga, P., Ozimek, M., Krawczyk, M., Rokowski, R., Nowakowska, M., Ochwat, P., Jurczak, A., & Stanula, A. (2020). Importance and diagnosis of flexibility preparation of male sport climbers. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(7), 2512. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7178254/
Heart Rate Behavior in Speed Climbing
Authors: Fuss, F. K., Tan, A. M., Pichler, S., Niegl, G., & Weizman, Y. | Year: 2020
Summary/Results:
This study measured heart rate (HR) during speed climbing in seven trained competitive climbers (5 women, 2 men). Using chest-strap monitors, athletes completed repeated climbs on 10-m and 15-m walls with set rest intervals. HR rose not only during climbs but continued to increase for about 13 seconds afterward, peaking at roughly 165 bpm (10 m) and 176 bpm (15 m). Recovery patterns showed that HR returned to a steady state within 5 minutes, which supports current competition rules requiring at least 5 minutes between attempts. Although the study did not directly measure psychological stress, the authors noted that the combined physical and mental demands likely contributed to the HR patterns.
Reference: Fuss, F. K., Tan, A. M., Pichler, S., Niegl, G., & Weizman, Y. (2020). Heart rate behavior in speed climbing. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1364. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01364
Association between MCT1 T1470A polymorphism and climbing status in Polish and Japanese climbers
Authors: Mika Saito, Michał Ginszt, Myosotis Massidda, Paweł Cięszczyk, Takanobu Okamoto, Piotr Majcher, Koichi Nakazato, Naoki Kikuchi | Year: 2020
Summary/Results:
This genetic study examined whether a specific gene variant—MCT1 T1470A, which affects how muscles handle lactate—is linked to climbing ability in 226 climbers (126 Polish, 100 Japanese) compared to 1028 non-athletic controls. Among Polish climbers, the T allele (which slows lactate transport) was significantly more common than in controls, especially in lead climbers. No such difference was found in Japanese climbers. The authors expected the AA genotype (linked to faster lactate clearance) to be more common in climbers, but instead found a higher frequency of the T allele in Polish athletes. This suggests that lactate buildup might contribute to muscle adaptation, and that genetic associations may vary by ethnicity.
Beta-Angel note: The idea that lactate buildup (via T allele) might support hypertrophy is intriguing, especially since forearm muscle adaptation is key in climbing. This may shift how we think about genetic “advantages” in sport performance.
Reference: Biol Sport. 2020 Sep 4;38(2):229–234. doi: 10.5114/biolsport.2020.98624. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8139354/
Antifragility in Climbing: Determining Optimal Stress Loads for Athletic Performance Training
Authors: Hill Y, Kiefer AW, Silva PL, Van Yperen NW, Meijer RR, Fischer N, Den Hartigh RJR | Year: 2020
Summary/Results: The authors tested whether performance training in climbing could benefit from a biological stress framework called hormesis and a trait called phenotypic plasticity (PP – an individual’s adaptability to environmental stress). They assessed 37 intermediate-level boulderers by having them complete routes of increasing difficulty, recording both the number of routes completed and the number of attempts. They created “load–response” curves for each climber and measured adaptability as the area under each curve. While climbers who reached the same maximum performance showed wide variation in adaptability (supporting Hypothesis 1), there was no evidence of antifragility patterns (i.e. performance improvement with moderate loading before decline), likely due to ceiling effects on the first easy route. Still, the curves helped identify three categories of routes: too easy (1 attempt), too hard (no progress), and challenging (completed in multiple attempts), the latter of which may stimulate adaptation by forcing exploration of new movement strategies.
Reference: Front Psychol. 2020 Mar 10;11:272. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00272.
https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00272/full
ACTN3 Genotype in Professional Sport Climbers
Author: M. Ginszt, M. Michalak-Wojnowska, P. Gawda, M. Wojcierowska-Litwin, I. Korszeń-Pilecka, M. Kusztelak, R. Muda, AA Filip, and P. Majcher1| Year: 2018
Summary/Results: This is the first genetic study on rock climbers which we’re familiar with. The study notes both a distinction between boulderers and both lead climbers and controls in having two RR alleles (a genetic sequence which helps determine a physical trait and comes in sequences of two) of the alpha-actinin-3 (ACTN3) gene. This gene is normally associated with elite sprint and power athletes. Perhaps more interesting is that there was a significant difference between “elite” and “higher elite” boulderers in terms of the prevalence of the R allele. Beta-Angel note: of particular note is that while the researchers found that the “X” allele (non-functional form of the ACTN3 gene) were higher in lead climbers, it was not statistically significant. It is postulated by the literature review that X alleles are more likely to be found in aerobic endurance athletes, but this climbing-specific research suggests that the X allele may not be as important to lead climbers as the R allele is to Boulderers. In the past, biopsies of muscle fiber tendons have helped find a better match between elite athletes and sub-disciplines. The researchers suggest that this test could practically help a climber find a good match for their own sub-discipline within climbing.
Reference: J Strength Cond Res. 2018 May;32(5):1311-1315.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/29401200
Biomechanics > Power
The relative importance of four muscle groups for indoor rock climbing performance
AUTHORS: MR Deyhle, H. Hsu, TL Cadez-Schmidt, BA Gurney, CM Mermier | Year: 2015
SUMMARY/RESULTS: Researchers attempted to determine the relative importance of four muscle groups (digit flexors, shoulder adductors, elbow flexors, or lumbar flexors) in eleven male rock climbers on a 40 degree overhang by pre-fatiguing one of the individual muscle groups. The results suggested that among the muscle groups studied in men, muscular endurance of the digit flexors and elbow flexors were especially important for the specific terrain.
REFERENCE: J Strength Cond Res. 2015 Jul;29(7):2006-14.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25574609 or
PDF: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270656746_The_Relative_Importance_of_Four_Muscle_Groups_for_Indoor_Rock_Climbing_Performance
Connective tissue adaptations in the fingers of performance sport climbers
AUTHORS: T. Schrieber, P. Allenspach, B. Seifert, A. Schweizer | Year: 2015
SUMMARY/RESULTS: Researchers tested whether (at least) 15 years of climbing produces adaptation in climber fingers by measuring the thickness of different tendons in 51 males broken up into a group of climbers and a group of non-climbers. Researchers found that significant adaptation occurred in the flexor tendon pulleys (A2, A4) which wrap around the bone on either side of the second (PIP) joint, as well as the joint capsule (which seals the joint space and holds the joint together) at the closest knuckle (DIP) joint to the tip of the finger.
REFERENCE: Eur J Sport Sci. 2015;15(8):696-702
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26267120
Estimation of hand and wrist muscle capacities in rock climbers
AUTHORS: L Vigouroux, B Goislard de Monsabert, E Berton | Year: 2015
SUMMARY/RESULTS: Researchers tested five different muscles within the hand and wrist of 9 male and 3 female climbers and compared them to non-climbers. The major difference was identified in the finger flexors of rock climbers, which were 37.1% greater than those of non-climbers. The finger extensor muscles (an antagonist muscle to the finger flexors, which means they have a contract and relax relationship) on the other hand showed no difference with non-climbers, suggesting a discrepancy which may be both potential danger and possible training opportunity.
REFERENCE: Eur J Appl Physiol. 2015 May;115(5):947-57
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25515018
Strength Profiles of Shoulder Rotators in Healthy Sport Climbers and Nonclimbers
Authors: EKL Wong, GYF Ng | Year: 2009
Summary/Results: The researchers compared the muscles required to do internal vs. external rotation of the shoulder in a group of 31 climbers with a group of 27 non-climbers in order to determine whether there were significant differences in climbers. Climbers have significantly better internal rotation compared to their external rotation as compared against the non-climbers, whose scores were similar for both, suggesting climbers may have an unstable shoulder. Beta Angel note: it’s important to note that the authors don’t necessarily assume that this leads to injury, but suggest it as a direction for future research.
Reference: J Athl Train. 2009 Sep-Oct; 44(5): 527–530
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2742463/